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Januarv,  1921 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICIi 

1921 


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WAR   DEPARTMENT, 

Wasiiixgtox,  January  21,  1921. 

The  following  study  ol  Education  for  Citizenship  has  been  prepared 
for  the  War  Department  oy  Pi-ofs.  J.  G.  de  Roulhac  Hamilton  and 
E.  W.  Knight,  of  the  l^nivei-sity  of  North  Carolina.  Herein  are 
presented  their  eonelusions  based  on  elose  observation  for  several 
months,  eonrerning  the  princij)les  and  practices  of  Army  education, 
as  now  conducted  under  autiiority  of  section  27  of  the  National 
Defense  Act  of  June  3,  1916,  as  amended  June  4.  U>20.  It  is  issued 
to  the  service  for  the  information  of  all  concerned. 
[0G2. 1,  A.G.O.] 

By  order  of  tiik  Sechkt.vhv  or  War: 

PEYTON   (\  MARCTI, 

Major  Geiifral,  (^hief  of  Staff, 
Official: 

P.  C.  HARRIS. 

Th  c  A  djii  ta  k  t  Of  mral. 


CONTENTS. 

Vcgc: 

Tntroduction , .0 

I.  Analysis  of  the  general  problem .,.  7 

If.  An  experiment  in  training  for  citizenship 11 

III.  Conclusion 17 

IV.  Selected  bil)liography 21 

V.  Appendix 24 

5 


INTRODUCTION. 


During  the  war  the  Army  was  compelled  to  give  general  education 
and  technical  training  to  more  than  a  million  and  a  quarter  of  the 
drafted  men  before  a  lighting  force  of  four  million  could  bo  properly 
organized.  Because  of  the  pressure  of  the  emcrgencj^,  results  had 
to  be  secured  ciuickly.  Therefore,  direct,  practical,  and  intensive 
methods  of  instruction  were  employed  and  a  simple  and  successful 
technique  of  teaching  was  evolved  as  experience  accumulated. 

Many  thousands  of  the  leading  civilian  educators  contributed  to 
this  work  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  France.  By  their  coopera- 
tion with  the  military  authorities  there  was  built  up  in  the  Army  a 
combined  military  and  civilian  system  of  training  which  proved  so 
cjffective  in  developing  soldiers  that  the  Army  has  retained  it  and  is 
adapting  it  to  peace-time  conditions. 

There  is  nothing  new  in  the  educational  principles  on  which  this 
training  system  is  based.  They  are  the  principles  which  have  been 
enunciated  by  all  the  prophets  of  education  from  Socrates  to  tho 
present  time.  The  technique  of  teaching  is  also  merel}"  that  which 
has  always  been  used  in  effective  instruction,  though  it  differs  in 
several  important  ways  from  the  current  practices  of  schools. 

Since  education  is  to-day  facing  a  serious  emergency,  it  is  of  great 
importance  that  civilian  educators  help  in  conserving  tho  educational 
methods  which  were  developed  in  the  military  establishment  durmg 
the  war.  These  methods  then  proA^ed  effective  in  releasing  national 
strength.  They  are  equally  effective  now,  because  the}'-  are  true  to 
the  fundamental  histincts  of  America  when  libera tetl  from  the  bonds 
of  tradition  and  habit.  This  monograph  suggests  a  practical  program 
to  achieve  this  end  hi  the  held  of  education  for  citizenship. 
6 


EDUCATION  FOR  CITIZENSHIP. 


I.  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  GENERAL  PROBLEM. 

For  years  wo  have  confidently  relied  upon  our  traditions,  our  wealth, 
our  strength,  as  bulwarks  of  defense  against  national  perils,  and  have 
cherished  so  healthy  an  optimism  concerning  the  stability  and 
growth  of  our  civic  ideals  and  practices  that  we  have  paid  scant 
attention  to  specific  means  of  education  for  effective  patriotism  of 
either  native  Americans  or  the  foreign  born.  Of  late,  however, 
there  has  been  a  growing  conviction  that,  however  superior  we  may 
be,  no  country  is  rich  enough  or  strong  enough  to  rely  upon  un- 
trained citizenship.  Patriotism  is  good  citizenship.  The  funda- 
mental idea  upon  which  it  is  based  is  that  of  service.  Service  to 
be  effective  necessarily  requir(>s  training;  and  the  child  or  the  man 
can  be  trained  in  sound  conceptions  of  citizenship,  in  capacities  for 
effective  service,  as  well  as  in  other  things.  It  is  equally  true, 
though  not  so  well  recognized,  that  an  education  which  does  not 
also  develop  a  disposition  or  desire  to  serve  the  community  is  funda- 
mentally defective.  Hence,  if  democracy  is  to  fulfill  the  destiny 
that  has  been  claimed  for  it,  it  is  imperative  that  every  citizen 
have  proper  education  for  citizenship. 

Among  American  citizens  there  is  a  too  common  ignorance  of 
fundamental  facts  and  principles  upon  which  to  base  wholesome 
conduct  and  sound  economic,  social,  political,  and  hitellectual  atti- 
tudes. Nor  is  ignorance  alone  found.  Indifference,  indolence  in 
civic  matters,  and  a  disposition  to  evade  civic  duties  are  responsible 
for  much  of  the  prevalent  ignorance  and  civic  delinciuency.  More- 
over, such  weaknesses  as  these  make  it  diflicult  for  many  who  aro 
not  ignorant  to  function  effectively. 

A  third  obvious  defect  of  American  citizenship  is  lack  of  critical 
capacity.  The  average  citizen,  lacking  information,  and  too  often 
indifferent,  bases  his  judgments  in  respect  to  public  problems  on 
the  judgments  of  others  who  are  often  no  better  qualified  than 
himself.  There  is  need  to  develop  the  habit  of  individual  analysis 
and  individual  judgment  based  on  sound  knowledge  and  correct 
information. 

Finally,  a  very  general  American  charactistic  is  the  lack  of  social 
or  civic  consciousness.  The  average  American  citizen  is  highly 
individualistic.  Social  consciousness,  however,  is  aroused  in  time 
of  stress  or  public  danger,  when  there  is  a  temporary  awakening 
which  usually  lasts  only  so  long  as  the  dui-ation  of  the  crisis.     In 

7 


8  EDIJCATIOlSr  FOR  CITIZENSHIP. 

war  he  is  ready  withoufc  question  to  die  for  his  country;  in  peace 
lie  is  inclined  not  to  recognize  the  obligation,  or  even  the  need,  to 
live  for  it. 

Few  will  deny  the  existence  of  these  failures  of  citizenship.  In 
face  of  them,  training  for  citizenship  must  be  in  part  remedial.  It 
should  furnish  information,  awaken  interest,  develop  a  critical 
spirit,  create  social  consciousness,  and  give  to  every  citizen  the 
necessary  equipment  of  qualities,  of  abilities,  and  of  informational 
knowledge  to  enable  him  to  function  creatively  in  his  economic, 
social,  political,  and  intellectual  environment. 

But  this  is  not  all.  It  is  not  enough  to  cure  the.  existent  ills. 
Training  must  also  be  increasingly  constructive  if,  in  the  future, 
it  is  to  serve  as  a  preventive  of  the  common  evils  of  American  citizen- 
ship.    It  must  do  this  by  cultivating: 

P'irst.  Civic  capacities  necessary  to  enable  the  individual  to  work 
creatively  in  society  and  to  contribute  productively  to  the  economic, 
social,  political,  and  intellectual  life  of  his  community. 

Second,  (^ivic  intelligence,  which  includes  the  information  and 
knowle<lgc  which  must  be  acquired  in  the  process  of  developing  his 
civic  capacities  in  order  to  make  them  effective  in  conduct. 

Third.  Civic  attitudes  and  habits  of  mind  and  heart,  which  ex- 
press themselves  in  a  disposition  to  serve  the  community  and  the 
nation  for  the  best  interests  of  all. 

In  short,  training  for  citizenship  should  aim  to  make  independent, 
creative,  interested,  informed,  and  responsible  citizens  who  have 
developed  the  disposition  to  act  justly  and  the  ability  to  see  clearly 
and  think  straight.  Such  citizens,  as  individuals,  will  have  definite 
conceptions  of  themselves  as  a  part  of  sovereignty,  not  only  as  void's 
and  in  the  formation  of  effective  public  opinion,  but  also  as  luiits  of 
that  creative  power  which  is  the  nation's  strength.  But  the  appeal 
of  such  training  must  be  full  of  promise  to  the  citizen.  It  must 
show  vision,  aspiration,  and  humanity  in  its  spirit.  And  above  all, 
it  must  be  practical  and  eflicient  in  its  method  and  purpose. 

The  problem  of  achieving  such  training  is  positive,  not  negntiA'c. 
It  is  one  of  attaining  fundamental  health,  rather  than  of  curing 
superficial  disease;  of  developing  the  state  as  a  producer,  rather  than 
as  a  policeman.  It  is  not  so  much  one  of  discovering  how  to  do  a 
certain  set  of  things,  as  it  is  one  of  linding  out  how  to  infuse  the  way 
of  doing  all  tilings  with  a  certain  ideal.  In  the  past  the  traditional 
conception  oC  training  for  citizenshij)  connected  it  almost  exclusively 
with  training  for  political  duties.  So-called  '"civic  education"  has 
seemed  to  be  either  an  indefinite  thing  with  little  that  was  practical 
about  it,  even  when  its  aims  were  comprehended,  or  else  a  definite 
thing  of  narrow  application  which  was  so  remote  from  the  affairs 
and  interests  of  ordinary  life  as  to  be  of  little  general  appeal.     The 


EDUCATION   FOR   CITIZENSHIP.  9 

chief  emphasis  has  been  laid  upon  rights  rather  than  upon  duties 
and  responsibihties.  Little  emphasis  lias  been  laid  upon  the  rest  of 
the  wide  domain  of  economic,  social,  and  intellectual  relationships, 
jUI  of  them  of  fundamental  importance  in  determining  the  disposition, 
character,  career,  and  value  of  the  citizen. 

In  general  we  have  held  to  the  doctrine  enunciated  by  Washington: 
"The  education  of  our  youth  is  ihe  science  of  government;  in  a  Re- 
public what  species  of  knowledge  can  be  equally  important?"  This 
may  have  been  true  in  his  day  and  even  later,  but  to-day  training  for 
citizenship  really  means  training  for  the  human  relationsliips  of  life. 
The  citizenship  of  the  polling  l)ooth  is  only  one,  though  a  very  im- 
portant part,  of  citizenship.  In  the  last  analysis  a  free  government 
lives  with  the  daily  life  of  its  p?ople.  There  is  thus  a  citizenship  of 
the  home,  a  citissenship  of  the  school,  a  citizenship  of  business,  a  citi- 
zenship of  the  community. 

Nowhere,  apparently,  until  the  recent  past  was  there  to  be  seen 
any  evidence  of  any  widespread  conception  of  training  for  citizen- 
ship in  tliis  sense.  To-day  there  is  a  growing  recognition  that  the 
-good  citizens  must  be  trained  not  only  for  his  purely  political  rela- 
tionships— duties,  responsibilities,  and  rights— but  must  also  be 
trained  for  his  other  relationsliips  as  well,  and  in  no  less  definite 
fasliion.  The  old  type  of  civics,  or  citizenship  course,  no  more  accom- 
plished the  purpose  of  training  than  did  numerous  other  branches  of 
the  curriculum,  very  often  not  as  much.  Training  for  citizenship, 
where  it  was  actually  accomplished  in  our  schools  and  colleges,  was 
a  by-product  of  education. 

A  study  of  such  training  reveals  the  absence  of  any  specifications 
of  the  requirements  of  citizenship.  In  the  professions,  in  the  crafts, 
in  practically  every  vocation  of  civilized  mankind,  there  have  been  set 
up  specifications  of  the  achievements  required  before  members  are 
recognized  as  masters  of  their  several  vocations — in  many  cases  before 
they  can  perform  any  of  the  tasks  connected  with  them.  A  large  part 
of  the  organized  educational  system  of  the  world  has  been  definitely 
designed  to  train  for  the  achievement  of  the  ends  thus  specified.  No 
such  specifications  have  been  established  for  citizenship  which  in  a 
democratic  community  is  tiie  vocation  of  all. 

The  time  has  come  to  do  for  citizensliip  what  has  been  done  alreaily 
for  the  professions  and  the  crafts.  This  does  not  mean  the  setting 
up  of  formal  requirements  to  which  conformity  is  legally  required, 
but  it  does  mean  a  critical  analysis  and  defining  of  the  things  involved 
in  good  citizenship  which  may  serve  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  build 
up  an  effective  system  of  training  for  the  performance  of  its  duties 
and  the  fulfilling  of  its  various  obligations  as  well  as  the  enjoyment 
of  its  rights. 

30001^—21 2 


10  EDUCATION   FOR   CITIZENSHIP. 

Althougli  tlieie  are  no  formiilakHl  specifications  of  the  reciuirenients 
of  good  citizensliip,  nevertheless  in  the  minds  of  men  there  is  a  cer- 
tain consensus  of  opinion  as  to  what  in  attitude  and  conduct  consti- 
tutes g()od  citizenship.  Certain  individuals  in  evei y  community  are 
accepted  as  good  <'itizens;  certain  actions  arc  well-nigh  universally 
held  to  he  evidences  of  good  citizenship  in  those  who  do  them;  a  good 
citizen  is  almost  always  certain  of  gaining  recognition  by  his  asso- 
ciates for  what  he  is.  vStandards  of  good  citizenship,  then,  are  scarcely 
needed  to  assist  in  the  recognition  and  classification  of  citizens;  we 
already  possess  a  set  of  instinctive  standards,  not,  however,  explicitly 
defined,  by  which  we  measure  our  associates  in  the  community.  It 
is  not  classification,  however,  that  is  needed.  The  major  problem  is 
how  to  train,  not  how  to  recognize  good  citizenship. 

It  is,  of  course,  obvious  that  the  problem  involves  certain  very 
different  considerations  from  those  involved  in  the  case  of  the  crafts, 
in  the  training  for  which  capacity  to  do  is  the  factor  of  chief  impor- 
tance. In  the  citizen,  capacities,  or  abilities,  are  only  a  part  of  the 
whole.  The  test  of  tlie  good  mechanic  is  found  in  what  he  can  do;  a 
good  citizen,  however,  is  measured  as  much  by  what  he  is  as  by  what 
he  can  do.  Both  the  good  citizen  and  tlie  good  mechanic  must  have 
accjuired  certain  knowledge  ami  information  as  a  guide  to  under- 
standing and  conduct;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  training 
of  the  effective  citizen  depends  not  only  upon  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  but  also  upon  the  development  of  character  and  habits  of 
productive  thought  and  action.  Adequate  and  proper  training, 
therefore,  must  both  develop  in  the  learner  the  required  disposition 
and  attitutles  and  lead  him  to  acipiu'c  the  necessary  knowledge  as 
part  of  the  process  of  that  growth  in  productive  ca[)acity  which  is 
essential  to  good  American  citizenship. 

In  a  system  of  universal  education  which  will  achieve  this  result  lies 
the  hope  of  American  democracy.  On  the  effectiveness  of  such  a 
system  depends  the  solution  of  our  economic,  social,  and  political 
problems,  which  will  mean  ultimately  a  vast  enhancement  of  national 
strength  and  a  larger  achievement  of  liberty.  In  no  other  way  can 
the  productive  energy  of  America,  upon  which  the  whole  structure  of 
our  civilization  rests,  be  so  fully  released  and  guided  into  channels  of 
constructive  work. 

From  the  foregoing  it  appears  that  the  solution  of  the  problem  of 
training  citizens  requires,  first,  an  analysis  and  definitions  of  the  pro- 
ductive capacities,  the  knowledge,  and  the  personal  attitudes  essential 
to  citizenship;  and  second,  the  development  of  a  technicpie  of  teach- 
ing that  guarantees  the  acquisition  of  the  necessary  knowledge  and 
fosters  the  growth  of  the  desired  attitudes  as  pari  of  the  process  of 
developing  creative  men. 


EDUCATION   FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  11 

The  remainder  of  this  report  presents  definite  suggestions  as  to 
how  the  requirements  of  the  prohlem  may  be  met  practically.  These 
suggestions  arc  not  drawn  from  thin  air  by  a  process  of  theoretical 
analysis  of  the  nature  of  man.  They  are  the  result/of  a  careful  study 
of  all  that  has  been  done  in  recent  years  by  the  schools,  the  industries, 
and  the  United  States  Army  and  Navy  in  their  practical  efforts  to 
train  and  classify  young  men  as  productive  citizens  and  intrepid 
soldiers.  No  finality  is  claimed  either  for  the  suggested  specifications 
of  the  essential  elements  of  citizenship  or  for  the  techni([ue  of  training 
described.  They  are  submitted  as  working  hypotheses,  which  define 
the  problem  concretely  and  which  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  further 
experiment  and  gradual  growth. 

II.  AN  EXeERIMENT  DT  EDUCATION  FOR  CITIZENSHIP. 

In  the  direction  of  education  for  citizenship  along  the  lines  above 
indicated,  many  experiments  full  of  educational  promise  are  being 
made  in  schools,  in  industries,  and  in  the  Army  and  Navy.  One  of 
the  experiments  which  has  thus  far  achieved  the  greatest  success  is 
that  in  progress  in  the  Army  under  the  direction  of  the  Education  and 
Recreation  Branch  of  the  War  Plans  Division  of  the  General  Staff. 
The  story  of  the  development  of  the  system  now  in  operation,  and  a 
<lescription  of  the  methods  employed,  are  important  in  this  inquir}'. 

The  conception  that  general  and  vocational  educatit)n  as  well  as 
military  training  are  essential  elements  in  the  training  of  an  Army  was 
formed  long  before  the  war.  It  was  formally'  expressed  in  section  21* 
of  the  National  Defense  Act  of  June  3,  1916,  which  states:  ''In  addi- 
tion to  military  training,  soldier's  while  in  the  active  service  shall 
hereafter  be  given  the  opportunity  to  study  and  receive  instruction 
upon  educational  lines  of  such  character  as  to  increase  their  military 
efficiency  and  enable  them  to  return  to  civil  life  better  equipped  for 
industrial,  commercial,  and  general  business  occupations." 

The  wisdom  of  this  provision  was  amply  demonstrated  by  the  war 
experience.  While  little  difficulty  was  encountered  in  finding  enough 
well-educated  and  technically  trained  men  to  officer  and  equip  an 
Army  of  500,000  men.  troubles  multiplied  in  geometric  ratio  as  the 
size  of  the  Army  increased.  In  its  efforts  to  cope  v,'ith  this  unpre- 
cedented situation,  the  War  Department  was  compelled,  before  it 
could  organize  the  authorized  military  forces,  to  give  an  enormous 
amount  of  intensive  general  education  and  vocational  training,  in 
addition  to  its  regular  military  training.  Schools  were  established  at 
Army  camps.  Development  battalions  were  organized.  And  when 
these  agencies  proved  inadequate,  the  colleges  and  technical  schools 
were  drafted  in  the  service. 

In  addition,  the  national  welfare  societies  were  called  in  and,  sup- 
ported by  liberal  gifts  from  a  united  people,  did  priceless  work  in 


12  BDUCATIOir  FOR  CITIZENSHIP. 

supplying  clean  and  healthy  recreation,  and  in  ministering  to  the 
moral  and  spiritual  life  of  the  soldiei*s.  When  the  armistice  was 
signed,  it  was  education  and  recreation  which  supplied  the  means  of 
maintaining  the  morale  of  tlie  Army  in  the  painful  period  of  waiting 
for  the  boat  home; 

Because  education,  recreation,  and  moral  training  were  thus  found 
to  be  indispensable  elements  in  mobilizing  an  efficient  fighting  Army, 
they  have  now  been  incorporated  with  military  training  into  the  regu- 
lar training  program  of  the  Anm*.  A  definite  organization  has  been 
set  up  for  conductmg  the  work,  and  Congress  is  supporting  it  with 
annually  increasing  appropriations.  During  the  past  year  it  has 
proved  to  be  the  most  effective  means  of  maintaining  the  enlisted 
strength  of  the  Army  both  in  quantity  and  in  quality.  More  than  GO 
per  cent  of  the  new  recruits  enter  the  service  because  of  the  opportu- 
nities now  offered  for  personal  development  and  growth. 

During  the  war  the  Army  had  a  very  definite  single  objective  for  all 
its  varied  training  activities,  namely,  to  develop  the  best  possible 
soldiers  in  the  least  possible  time.  Under  the  impelling  pressure  of 
the  situation  there  was  f[uickly  evolved  a  training  system  which  is 
a  combination  of  military  training  and  education,  and  which  differs 
in  many  important  respects  from  that  now  generally  practiced  in 
civilian  schools.  The  essential  difference  between  the  two,  so  far  as 
educational  methods  are  concerned,  can  best  be  made  clear  by  a 
concrete  case,  taken  for  simplicity  and  vividness,  from  the  field  of 
-physical  culture. 

The  old  setting-up  exercises  were  designed  to  develop  fine  physique. 
To  this  end  the  men  were  required  to  execute  repeatedly  the  same 
motions  all  together.  By  this  physical  drill  the}"  acquired  strong 
muscles  and  physical  endurance,  which  enabled  them  to  stand  ordinary 
wear  and  tear  well.  But  when  confronted  suddenly  by  unusual 
conditions,  they  were  unable  to  cope  with  them.  Physical  strength 
alone  did  not  make  them  masters  of  the  situation.  Hence  the  time 
devoted  to  setting-up  exercises  was  materially  reduced  and  quickening 
games  were  introduced  to  supplement  the  exercises.  The  effort  in 
the  quickening  game  is  to  confront  the  men  suddenly  with  an  unex- 
pected situation  requiring  prompt  and  vigorous  action  in  a  definite 
direction.  Success  in  meeting  the  situation  quickly  brings  high  scores 
and  failure  brings  mild  punishment. 

Everyone  recognizes  that  the  superiority  of  the  quickening  games 
over  the  setting-up  exercises  lies  in  the  fact  that  games  appeal  to  the 
sporting  instinct  and  keep  the  man's  attention  on  what  he  is  doing, 
while  the.  exercises  can  be  done  mechanically  while  the  mind  goes 
woolgathering.  Th6  games,  therefore,  not  only  develop  physical 
strength,  but  also  attention,  quickness,  reason,  good  coordination, 
and  many  other  valuable  attitudes  and  abilities.     They  thus  exercise 


EDUCATION   FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  13 

both  mind  and  bod}^  simultaneously  and  build  up,  not  Uiscle  aloACty 
but  the  entire  man.  Hence,  they  are  valuable  adjuncts  to  \'be  military 
training  of  soldiers.  ,     ,    . 

The  same  principle  was  applied  by  the  Army  to  tedmical  training 
and  to  general  education  during  the  war.  The  okLmanual  training 
was  designed  to  develop  manipulative  skill.  To  thisend,  the  mechanic 
arts  were  analyzed  into  types  of  skill,  like  filing,  cjjipping,  drilling, 
turning;  and  each  student  was  put  through  a  series  of  exercises 
designed  to  develop  these  generalized  skills  one  by  one.  Such  train- 
ing undoubtedly  does. increase  skill;  but  it  contributes  little  to  the 
development  of.  that  prime  requisite  of  a  soldier,  ability  to  make  a 
quick  estimate  of  a  new  situation  and  to  determine  promptly  what 
action  is  needed  to  insure  a  favorable  result. 

In  order  to  ov,ercomo  this  defect,  the  several  technical  occupations 
required  in  the  Army  wore  analyzed  into  the  specific  operations  a 
soldier  would  be  required  to  perform.  Training,  then,  consists  in 
giving  the  man  a  series  of  real  jobs,  each  of  which  involves  several 
fmidamental  operations  of  the  trade.  He  is.re^iuired  to  analyze  the 
job,  to  make  a  bill  of  materials  needed,  and  to  plan  how  he  will  pro- 
ceed to  complete  it.  Army  manuals  and  other  reference  books  supply 
the  standard  information  concerning  the  manipulative  processes 
involved.  Progress  is  individual  in  that  each  soldier  advances  as 
rapidly  as  he  demonstrates  proficiency  by  doing  his  job  well  and  by 
answering  numerous  c|uestions  concerning  the  methods  and  means 
employed. 

The  jobs  given  involve,  as  far  as  practicable,  productive  work  that 
must  be  done  to  improve  living  conditions  at  the  camp.  Exploitation 
of  the  men  by  assigning  them  to  repair  work  that  has  for  them  no 
educational  value  is,  however,  strictly  prohibited.  Necessary  repeti- 
tion and  drill  are  secured  by  so  selecting  the  jobs  assigned  that  each 
operation  requiring  practice  is  met  a  number  of  times  in  various 
combinations  during  the  course.  No  fixed  list  of  jobs  is  prescribed, 
but  each  teacher  must  make  u})  liis  own  list  to  fit  his  local  conditions 
and  opportunities. 

This  type  of  vocational  training  undoubtedly  has  high  value  as 
citizenship  training.  Not  only  does  it  train  the  soldier  for  a  gainful 
occupation  by  which  he  can  earn  his  living,  but  it  oft'ers  him  an 
opportunity  for  creative  work,  it  impresses  upon  him  an  attitude 
toward  productive  work  and  a  pride  in  achievement,  and  if  tends 
to  develop  appreciation  of  an  orderly  and  well  done  job.  Attention 
is  also  paid  to  the  artistic  side  of  the  job  with  the  idea  of  fostering 
the  desire  for  clean  and  attractive  suri-oundings  and  for  good  living 
conditions.  Combinetl  with  military  training,  which  inculcates  self- 
disciplme  and  sense  of  service,  its  results  are  very  striking. 

The  physical  and  vocational  training  methods  just  described  are 
based  on  the  same  educational  prmciples.     Each  begins  by  confront- 


14  EDUCATION   FOR  ClTIZliNSHIP. 

ing  the  studeut  with  a  situation  whicli  appeals  to  some  one  of  liis 
fuiulamental  instincts — his  creative  instinct,  his  sporting  instinct,  his 
instinct  for  self-preservation,  his  instinct  for  cooperation.  When 
some  instinct  has  been  thus  aroused,  the  student  himself  applies  his 
energy  to  achieve  the  immediate  desired  end.  It  is  then  the  function 
of  the  teacher  to  direct  this  dischai^e  of  energy  into  channels  whicli 
will  result  in  successful  achievement.  As  this  process  is  repeated, 
the  channels  in  which  the  energy  discharges  gradually  become  more 
marked,  and  habits  are  formed  which  ultimately  develop  the  man 
into  a  competent  workman.  The  measurement  of  progiess  by 
achievement  is  an  ailded  incentive  to  good  work,  since  the  man 
knows  that  his  advancement  de})ends  upon  the  success  of  his  own 
individual  efforts,  and  is  not  limited  by  weakness  or  failure  of  his 
less  gifted  classmates. 

These  principles  and  this  techni((ue  have  been  applied  in  the  Army 
not  only  to  the  vocational  training,  but  also  to  general  education. 
It  is  this  fact  which  is  of  peculiar  interest  to  the  colleges  in  considering 
courses  designed  to  train  for  better  citizenship  and  which  justifies 
the  present  discussion.  The  courses  now  used  in  the  Army  have  been 
developed  on  the  basis  of  the  experience  with  the  War  Issues  Coui*se 
during  the  war. 

The  present  Army  course  in  general  education  consists  of  a  series ' 
of  discussions  of  vital  problems.  These  problems  are  selected  to 
appeal  to  one  or  more  of  the  soldier's  fundament-al  instincts,  and 
each  one  depicts  a  specific  situation  which  calls  for  action  directed 
toward  improvement.  The  discussion  consists  of  an  analysis  of  the 
situation  both  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  facts  and  experiences 
involved,  and  also  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  moral  import.  Infor- 
mation additional  to  that  already  possessed  by  the  class  is  supplied 
by  reading  matter  and  references  for  study,  which  have  been  selected 
so  as  to  increase  the  student's  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  tC  defuie 
the  moral  issues  involved.  The  discussion  is  guided  by  the  teacher 
so  that  the  class  is  eventually  led  to  a  conclusion  which  is  agreed  to 
be  the  best  solution  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  square  deal  and  of 
more  liberal  oppotunities  for  growth  in  social,  economic,  and  indus- 
trial life. 

The  problem  of  organizing  the  materials  for  such  a  course  is  a 
difficult  one  for  the  teacher,  because  the  subject  matter  must  be 
selected  to  meet  several  somewhat  antagonistic  requirements.  It 
must  appeal  to  the  student  and  release  his  energy.  It  must  deal 
with  subject  matter  which  the  student  must  grasp  in  order  to 
grow  strong  as  a  citizen.  It  must  raise  moral  issues  and  guide  the 
student's  discussion  of  these  issues  m  a  way  to  develop  his  disposition 
and  attitude  toward  right  action.  In  meeting  these  difficulties  in 
Army  schools  it  has  been  found  of  great  assistance  to  hold  every  day 


EDUCATION   FOE  CITIZENSHIP.  15 

a  confcronco  of  all  tho  teachers  giving  the  course.  This  conference 
lii-st  made  an  analysis  of  the  problem  and  agreed  upon  a  specific 
definition  of  the  objectives  to  be  attained  each-  day.  It  then  dis- 
cusses the  results  of  each  day's  lesson  and  decides  what  questions 
shall  form  the  basis  of  the  next  day's  discussion  and  which  phases 
of  the  subject  shall  be  emphasized.  The  course  is  planned  to  extend 
over  three  years.  A  manual  for  the  first  year's  wc^rk  has  just  been 
published  as  the  result  of  experience  with  soldier  classes  last  winter 
at  (^amp  Grant'. 

The  work  in  general  educat  on  in  the  Army  is  given  two  consecutive 
periods  each  da\-.  The  first  is  devoted  to  the  discussion  just  out- 
lined and  the  second  is  used  for  training  in  written  and  oral  expression. 
In  the  latter,  the  soldiei-s  write  or  state  orally  their  conclusions  con- 
cerning the  problems  of  the  previous  hour.  Their  work  is  criticized 
from  the  point  of  view  of  clear  expression  and  they  are  drilled  in 
spelUng,  in  penniansjiip.  in  punctuation,  and  in  composition.  The 
two  periods  contain  all  t!ie  instruction  given  the  elementary  students 
in  the  basic  subjects  in  general  education,  such  as  reading,  writing, 
spelling,  aritlmietic.  geography,  history,  and  civics.  Special  courses 
in  algebra,  geometry,  science,  economics,  and  history  are  offered  for 
more  advanced  students  after  they  have  completed  the  general 
course. 

In  planning  work  of  this  type  it  is  important  to  note  that  in  all 
Army  coui"ses  the  subject  matter  is  organized  about  real  jobs  or 
real  situations  rather  than  accoiding  to  the  customary-  departments 
of  school  instructi«)n.  Thus,  a  job  in  plumbing  may  involve  physics, 
chemistry,  and  mathematics;  and  if  so,  the  needed  instruction  in 
these  subjects  is  given  ns  part  of  the  study  of  the  job.  Similarl}-, 
the  discussion  of  a  problein  in  general  education  may  involve  histoiy, 
economics,  geography,  science,  literature,  and  art.  If  so,  the  required 
elements  of  these  several  subjects  are  included  when  needed.  Review 
periods  arc  used  to  classify  in  logical  form  ideas  that  need  such  classi- 
fication. This  type  of  organization  is  the  converse  of  the  one  in 
ordinary  use,  in  whicli  subjects  are  presented  in  logical  or  chrono- 
logical order  first  and  tlien  specific  jobs  or  situations  cited  as  apphca- 
tions. 

The  new  Army  education  system  has  been  in  oj>eration  for  a  little 
over  a  year.  Combined  as  it  is  with  military  training,  the  success 
has  been  so  striking  in  laying  sound  foundations  for  citizenship  in 
soldiei-s  as  to  warrant  the  suggestion  tliat  civilian  schools  and  colleges 
might  increa.se  the  value  of  their  contributions  toward  training  for 
citizensliip  by  introducing  work  of  a  similar  nature  and  b}*  organizing 
their  other  instruction  along  similar  lines. 

The  fii-st  step  toward  the  i)ractical  realization  of  this  suggestion 
lies  in  tho  direction  of  framing  a  clear  and  specific  statement  of  the 


16  EDUCATION   FOR  CITIZENSHIP. 

objectives  of  siicli  coui*ses.  As  suggested  on  page  8,  if  tlie  course 
is  a  single  combination  coui*se  like  those  in  the  Army,  this  statement 
should  specify  the  abilities,  the  knowledge,  and  the  attitudes  essential 
to  good  citizenshij).  Although  different  individuals  will  differ 
widely  in  their  statements  of  these  specifications,  the  following  is 
presented  as  a  general  outline  of  the  type  of  statement  tliat  is  required 
as  a  guide  to  thi^  proper  organization  of  such  a  composite  course :    . 

1.  In  the  matter  of  abilities,  good  citizenship  requires  that  one 
be  able  to  defend  his  country  and  to  contribute  productively  to  the 
life  of  the  times.  To  do  this  he  must  be  both  a  good  soldier  and 
skillful  in  some  trade  or  profession  by  which  he  earns  his  livelihood 
and  cares  for  himself  and  family.  He  must  also  be  able  to  enjoy 
and  to  improve  his  environment  and  the  common  inheritance  of 
humanity  which  accrues  from  cooperation  in  creating  ever  larger 
opportunities  for  growtli  for  all  mankind. 

2.  As  to  intelligence,  good  citizenship  requu'es  that  a  man  be 
reasonably  informed  concerning  the  fundamental  processes  of 
economic  life,  such  (is  production,  distribution,  consumption,  trans- 
portation, communication,  taxation,  money,  credit,  capital,  labor, 
corporations,  charities  and  corrections,  and  the  protective  functions 
of  the  military,  the  police,  and  the  law.  In  respect  to  his  social 
environment,  he  should  know  something  about  health,  education, 
religion,  the  family,  the  community,  immigration,  the  control  of 
living  conditions,  the  development  of  liberty,  and  the  changing  status 
of  women.  lie  should  also  be  well  posted  on  the  workings  and  true 
fmictions  of  municij)al.  State,  and  Federal  Government,  concerning 
his  obligations  to  government,  and  concerning  international  relations. 
On  the  humanistic  side  he  should  at  least  be  interested  in  good 
literature,  philosoph}',  and  the  Jiistorical  background  of  present 
events. 

3.  In  the  matter  of  disoosit  on  he  should  be  inclined  spontaneously 
to  deal  wdth  his  fellow  men  loyally,  honestly,  justly,  tolerantly,  and 
with  a  spirit  of  kindness  and  cooperation.  It  should  disturb  his 
conscience  if  he  is  not  producing  creativel}^  and  industriously  and 
living  tliriftily.  Pie  should  be  ready  to  accept  responsibility  and  to 
act  independently,  courageously,  yet  with  self-control  and  reverence 
for  God  and  man.  His  judgment  should  alwa^^s  tend  spontaneously 
to  action  in  the  direction  of  protecting  the  weak,  of  rightiiig  wrong, 
and  of  liberating  creative  energy  so  as  to  secure  the  maximum  oppor- 
tunities for  the  growth  of  every  human  being. 

4.  If  the  course  planned  is  a  specialized  coui"se  for  more  advanced 
students,  the  instructor  must  select  from  the  more  general  reijuire- 
ments  just  stated  the  specific  items  which  he  intends  to  use  as  the 
speciiic  objectives  of  the  course.  These  must  then  be  analyzed  in 
detail  and  the  problems  for  discussion  chosen  accordingly. 


EDUGATIOX   FOU   CITIZKNSHIP.  17 

III.  CONCLUSIONS. 

The  plans  of  the  War  Department  for  the  education  of  the  Army- 
are  liighl^-  significant  and  full  of  promise  for  the  Nation  as  a  whole. 
Tlie  Army  is  leading  the  way  toward  a  new  day  in  training  for  citi- 
zenship, but  it  can  not  perform  the  whole  task  or  even  the  larger 
part  of  it.  Nor  should  it  he  expected  to  do  so.  "tlie  schools,  ele- 
mentary, secondary,  and  higher,  are  the  logical  agencies  through 
which  this  training  should  he  given.  They  have  been  established 
for  this  purpose,  they  have  the  closest  contact  with  all  classes  of 
the  population,  and  theii-s  is  the  responsibility.  Up  to  military  age| 
at  least,  they  must  train  the  potential  soldier  and  citizen. 

In  every  school  the  citizenship  coui"se  should  come  to  be  the  central 
and  fundamental  part  of  the  curriculum.  Or  else  the  work  in  the 
different  subjects  should  be  directed  toward  the  same  end.  In  either 
case,  the  course  should  be  introduced  early  and  continued  through 
the  high  school,  and  the  method  and  objective  should  remain  the 
same  throughout. . 

In  the  lower  grades,  emphasis  should  be  laid,  through  the  use  of 
suitable  material,  on  the  development  of  essential  attitudes  and  abili- 
ties, at  the  same  time  training  the  child  to  the  formation  of  a  clear  con- 
ception of  his  immediate  environment  and  his  proper  relation  thereto. 
All  the  while  he  will  be  acquiring  an  e^'er-increasing  fund  of  informa- 
tion and  knowledge.  And  so  in  enlarging  circles,  as  progress  is  made, 
more  advanced  material  employed,  and  more  difficult  problems  taken 
up,  the  pupil  will  relate  himself  to  his  environment  in  its  various 
phases. 

No  suggestion  is  here  made  of  a  coui-se  that  will  cover  the  same 
oTound  over  and  over;  the  whole  idea  is  one  of  growth  and  progress, 
the  progressive  training  and  development  of  wholesome  dispositions, 
the  perfecting  of  essential  abilities,  and  the  acquisition  of  the  knowl- 
edge and  information  that  the  good  and  equipped  citizen  ought  to 
have.  Better  citizens  are  the  objective,  but  good  citizenship  is  a 
collective  expression,  and,  as  the  pupil  is  trained  for  citizenship,  he 
is  trained  also  for  the  business  of  living. 

The  question  may  properly  be  asked  whether  an  already  crowded 
curriculum  can  be  stretched  to  admit  a  new  course  running  through 
all  the  years  of  the  schools.  If  the  citizenship  coui"se  is  properly 
planned  and  properly  directed  along  the  lines  indicated,  the  curricu- 
lum will  involve  no  stretching.  It  undoubtedly  will  mean  a  reor- 
ganization, for  many  of  the  tim(>  allotments  of  the  present  program 
will  be  seen  to  be  unnecessary.  Here  will  be  combined  many  of  the 
things  which  are  now  treated  separately.  Tlieir  essentials  will 
necessarily  form  a  part  of  the  citizenship  course.  Pupils  will  learn 
more  easily,  cover  ground  more  rapidly,  and  grasp  as  never  before 


18  EDUCATION   FOR   CITIZENSHIP. 

tlic  intorvclatioii  of  tlie  various  subjects  dealt  with  in  the  material 
used.  Such  a  course  in  the  h)ng  run  will  result  in  a  great  sariiig  of 
time  and  effort. 

It  must  not,  however,  he  supposed  that  such  a  course  is  here  con- 
ceived to  offer  a  liberal  education  in  itself,  but  it  is  contended  that  it 
furnishes  the  befet'possible  basis  for  a  liberal  education.  The  remarks 
of  Dean  Woodbridgc  in  regard  to  the  War  Issues  Course  are  strikingly 
applicable  here: 

It  is  not  surprisinii,  therefore,  tlist  those  who  have  had  to  do  with  this  course  are 
})eginniug  to  ask  themselves  if  it  does  not  constitute  the  elements  of  a  lil)eral  educa- 
tion for  the  youth  of  to-day.  Born  of  the  consciousness  that  a  democracy  needs  to 
know  w  hat  it  is  fighting  for,  it  has  awakened  a  consciousness  of  what  we,  as  a  people, 
need  to  know  if  our  part  of  the  world  of  to-day  is  to  be  intelligent,  sympathetic,  and 
liberal.  In  the  past  education  was  liberalized  by  means  of  the  classical  tradition. 
It  afforded  for  educated  men  a  common  background  of  ideas  aiid  commonly  under- 
stood standards  of  judgment.  For  the  present  that  tradition  no  longer  suffices.  If 
education  is  to  be  liberalized  again,  if  our  youth  are  to  be  freed  from  a  confusion  of 
ideas  and  standards,  no  other  means  looks  so  attractiA^e  as  a  common  knowledge  of 
what  the  ]>resent  world  of  human  afiairf^  really  is.  The  wai-  lias  revealed  that  world 
with  the  impelling  clearness  which  tragedy  alone  seems  able  to  attain.  *  *  *  To 
the  thoughtful,  therefore,  the  course  affords  the  oppDrtunity  to  introduce  into  our 
education  a  liberalizing  force  which  will  give  to  the  generations  to  come  a  common 
background  of  ideas  and  commonly  understood  standards  of  judgment. 

Nor  is  the  introduction  of  such  a  course  another  plan  to  make 
education  a  sugar-coated  pill,  easy  to  swallow.  It  is  not  "soft 
pedagogy."  It  will  make  education  easier  to  acquire  because  it  will 
lend  new  interest  to  mucli  that  has  been  often,  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions,  only  imperfectly  imderstood  by  the  pupil.  It  will 
be  easier  because  it  has  purpose  that  can  readily  be  grasped,  because 
it  leads  somewhere,  because  it  whips  and  stimulates  every  faculty. 
Properly  directed,  it  means  not  less  but  more  work,  work  that  is 
purposeful,  real,  that  has  clearly  defined  relations  to  life,  environment, 
and  knowledge.  It  is'  the  type  of  work  that  yields  true  discipline 
and  develops  a  true  soldier,  because  it  is  a  constant  struggle  of  the 
individual  with  the  intrinsic  difhciilties  of  life. 

Such  a  course  requires  a  new  type  of  teaching  if  definite  objectives 
for  citizenship  training  are  to  be  established  and  accurate  definitions 
of  the  work  necessary  for  their  attainment  are  to  be  formed.  Empha- 
sis now  needs  to  be  placed  not  on  facts  merely,  but  on  tlieir  spirit 
and  meaning  through  a  proper  interpretation  and  undeistanding  of 
them.  Only  in  this  way  can  human  effort  be  released  and  a  more 
wholesome  civic  morale  be  built  up  and  sustained. 

These  purposes  can  best  be  attained  through  the  so-called  applica- 
tory  method  of  teaching  through  consciously  planned  and  complete 
units  of  purposeful  work  or  activity  which  results  in  achievement. 
Througli  this  method  the  pupil  sees  the  useful  ends  to  be  attained  and 
by  apply mg  to  the  problem  or  project  in  hand  his  present  informa- 
tion, experience,  or  skill  is  stimulated  to  achieve  them.    Through  it  he 


EDUCATION   rOK   CITIZENSHIP.  •      19 

becomes,  acquainted  with  liis  environment  and  endeavors  to  under- 
stand it  and  to  adjust  himself  to  it.  Sueli  a  method  gives  significance 
and  meaning  to  the  social,  economic,  political,  and  intellectual  activi- 
ties about  him.  It  reveals  to  liim  the  usefuhiess  of  sucli  activities  and 
enables  him  to  comprehend  the  relation  })et^veen  what  he  is  doing 
and  the  purpose  and  value  of  it.  Naturally  the  more  intimate  tills 
relationship  the  more  powerful  and  purposeful  are  the  pupil's  motives 
and  the  more  wliole-hearted  is  his  effort.  These  motives  then  become 
concerned  not  with  information  but  with  achievement,  growth, 
effective  social  doing,  with '  'learning  to  do  by  doing."  Firm  character 
and  self-discipline  iiu'vitably  result. 

This  method  of  teacliing  afl'ortls  the  ]>upil  a  natural  approach  to 
subject  material.  pro])lems,  projects,  activities.  It  rests  upon  a 
social  basis.  It  looks  in  the  direction  of  adjustment  to  environment 
and  stimulates  the  pupil  to  enter  into  the  reality  of  living  and  to 
function  productively  in  society  by  adajJting  himself  and  his  interests 
to  its  requirements.  It  makes  each  new  problem  a  fresh  challenge  to 
endeavor  and  thus  increases  capacity  for  quick  and  orderly  thinking. 
It  establishes  contacts  with  life,  furnishes  powerful  social  and  intel- 
lectual appeals,  and  relates  everyday  pro])lems  to  the  business  of 
living. 

Moreover,  such  a  course  and  method  will  serve  to  give  a  new  mean- 
ing to  the  so-called  civic  capacities,  qualities,  dispositions.  These 
need  to  be  stripped  of  the  magic  veneer  of  finality  with  which  the  old 
conceptions  have  clothed  them.  Loyalty,  obedience,  reverence, 
thrift,  honesty,  and  the  others  have  been  viewed  too  often  as  fixed 
and  ultimate  rather  than  as  changing,  moving  ends  or  results  of  civic 
training.  We  need  to  A*iew  them  as  the  result  of  pursuits  and  activi- 
ties and  not  as  ends  in  themselves.  We  should  seek  not  reverence, 
honesty,  health,  but  to  live  more  reverently,  more  honorably,  more 
healthily  in  those  everyday  pursuits  and  activities.  The  endeavor  of 
the  citizen  should  not  be  to  at  tarn  reverence,  honesty,  health  as  a 
generahzed  static  outcome,  but  through  reverent,  honorable,  and 
healthy  living  to  color  and  direct  all  his  pursuits  and  activities  so 
that  life  may  be  well-proportioned  rather  than  •portioned  out  into 
strips  and  fractions." 

Civic  capacities  Ukc  moral  excellencies  largely  depend  uj^on  oppor- 
tunities for  wide  s^^npathy,  tolerance,  intelligent  analysis,  decision; 
and  civic  deficiencies  like  moral  failures  have  their  root  in  the  weak- 
ness of  disposition,  unsound  or  biased  attitude.  Civic  capacities  are 
not  to  be  sought  as  abstractions  separate  and  apart  from  participation 
in  social  activities.  The  citizen  should  be  measured  by  tlie  direction 
in  wliich  he  is  moving:  he  is  bad  if  he  is  deteriorating;  he  is  good  if  he 
is  growing  better.  The  attainment  of  reverence,  honesty,  health,  is 
not  the  aim  of  citizenship ;  rather  it  is  the  mark  of  progress  and  better- 
ment; the  means  of  civic  improvement.     The  final  aim  and  end  is 


20       '  EDUCATION   FOR   GiTlZHNSHIP. 

growth — the  active  process  of  changing  existing  situations  for  tlic 
increase  of  social  welfare. 

Because  so  large  a  proportion  of  American  citizens  go  no  further 
than  the  lower  schools,  it  is  important  that  instruction  and  trahiing 
in  the  funthi mentals  of  good  citizenship  should  be  given  there.  But 
the  work  should  be  carried  on  through  the  high  school  in  the  same 
manner,  but  witli  more  advanced  materials,  and  Avith  a  l^roader  out- 
look.    Nor  should  it  stop  there. 

In  the  colleges  and  universities  of  tlie  country  a  growing  interest 
in  the  question  of  training"  for  citizenship  has  manifested  itself.  Re- 
cently various  experiments  in  iluit  direction  have  been  made  or  are  at 
this  time  un(kn-  way.  Notable  examples  of  these  are  the  contemporary 
civilization  course  at  Columbia  and  the, citizenship  courses  at  Stan- 
ford I'niveisity  and  the  I'niversity  of  Missouri.  Such  a  course  is  also 
])eing  given  this  year  at  the  Univeisity  of  North  Carolina.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  others  will  be  attempted  at  other  places.  It  is  of  great  im- 
portance that  the  institutions  of  higher  learning  should  recognize  the 
great  o])])ortunity  hexe  presented  and  take  advantage  of  it.  The 
schools  will  always  remain  the  agency  of  cliief  importance  for  training 
the  mass  of  citizens,  but  the  service  that  can  be  performetl  by  the 
colleges  is  of  exceptional  importtince.  Not  only  does  the  responsi- 
])ility  for  training  leaders  rest  upon  the  colleges,  l)ut  even  the  greater 
obligation  to  equip  and  train  the  new  type  of  teachers  who  will  develop 
and  direct  this  important  work  of  the  schools. 

Upon  the  basis  of  the  training  already  given  in  the  schools  results 
should  be  ()})tained  that  will  not  oidy  contribute  notably  to  preparing 
and  motivating  men  and  women  for  eflt'ective  citizenship,  but  which 
will  also  tend  greatly  to  tlie  improvement  of  general  scholarship.  No 
college  can  afford  to  oAcrlook  the  op])ortunity  given  l\y  this  work  and 
turn  over  to  other  agencies  the  task  whicli  is  in  itself  a  challenge  to  the 
ability  and  vision  of  tln^  institutions  of  high  learning.-  It  is  their  place 
to  lead. 

ICver}^  college  and  university  in  the  United  States  should  require 
for  a  degree  such  a  course;  A\'ith  tbe  same  objective  and  tlie  same  tech- 
nique. With  tlie  vast  amount  of  material  suitable  for  college  stu- 
dents and  available  for  use,  the  students,  directed,  will  obtain  such 
a  grasp  of  civic  problems,  acquire  such  a  content  of  knowledge  and 
information  bearing  upon  them,  and  develop  such  sound  opinions  in 
respect  to  them  as  will  assure  from  the  mass  of  college  graduates  of 
the  future  not  alone  good  citizenship  but  trained  leadei-ship. 

Two  methods  by  which  such  a  course  may  be  given  present  them- 
selves. The  first,  which  will  be  preferred  in  many  institutions,  is  to 
institute  a  general  course,  conducted  by  a  group  of  instructors  on  a 
common  plan  and  outline  with  the  same  projects  and  problems. 
This  has  certain  striking  advantages  such  as  the  benefit  of  the  counsel 
and  experience  of  all  concerned  with  the  giving  of  the  course,  the 


EDUCATION   Foil   ClTfZEXSHIP.  2"1' 

certainty  of  includino:  in  all  the  sections  the  things  whidi  are  agreed 
upon  as  essential  or  even  of  largo  importance,  the  estahhshment  of  a 
standard,  and  the  benefit  and  economy  lii<ely  to  result  from  the  prep- 
aration of  material  for  one  large  group  of  students. 

Tlie  other  plan,  which  will  pr<>bably  meet  with  the  favor  of  a 
larger  num])er  of  institutions,  is  to  have  the  course  given  separately 
in  several  or.  all  the  departments  which  can  establish  the  proper 
approach,  such  as  history,  government,  economics,  sociology.  Englisli 
literature,  and  philosophy.  In  such  a  case,  were  the  couise  required, 
the  requirement  couhl  be  fulfilled  by  each  student  electing  the  one 
oflered  Ivv  that  department  whose  approach  to  the  question  inter- 
ested liim  most.  This  method  has  many  things  to  recommend  it. 
It  does  not  require  large  additions  to  the  teaching  staff  for  the 
specific  purpose  of  giving  the  course.  It  gives  a  certain  desirable 
flexibility  and  variation.  It  enhances  the  student's  interest  by 
allowing  him  opportunity  to  select  the  channel  of  approach.  It 
offei's  less  chance  for  a  cut-and-dried  course  based  upon  dogmatic 
and  academic  opinion.  It  will,  in  many  cases;  lead  to  interdepart- 
mental relationships  of  great  educational  value.  It  will  give  a  stimu- 
lation to  the  teachers  that  will  have  good  results. 

In  the  ease  of  the  former  plan,  such  a  com*se  would  embrace  and 
might  therefore  replace  certain  required  cou!"ses  as.  for  example, 
freshman  history  and  English.  In  the  case  of  the  latter  plan,  the 
course  should  take  the  place  of  the  fii-st  course  in  that  subject. 

In  the  Great  War  the  colleges  proved  to  a  somewhat  dubious 
])uhlic  that  they  had  given  to  their  students  training  which  made 
them  of  inestimable  value  to  the  Nation  in  arms.  Here  is  the  oppor- 
tunity for  the  colleges  to  give  to  young  men  and  women  training 
which  will  fit  them  specifically  for  the  patriotic  tasks  of  peace.  To 
equip  and  send  out  into  the  world  trained  men  and  women  who  arc 
related  to  their  environment  and  to  their  duties  and  responsibilities 
in  relation  to  it  is  a  more  diflicult  task  by  far,  but  in  doing  it  Is  the 
promise  of  democracy. 

IV.  SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

In  th(>  pieparation  of  tlie  foregoing  study,  practically  everytliing 
that  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  training  for  citizenship  and 
on  tlie  project-problem  method  has  been  examined.  In  addition, 
numerous  books  and  articles  not  specifically  relating  to  those  sub- 
jects have  been  used  with  prtjfit.  It  is  manifestly  inij^ossible  to  men- 
tion separatelv  all  of  these,  but  we  desire  to  make  note  of  the  follow- 
ing, which  have  high  value  for  those  investigating  these  questions: 

Aydeloite,  Fr.\xk.  The  War  Istiuos  Course  of  the  Committee  on  Education  and  Spe- 
cial Training.     War  Department,  KI19. 

All  analysis  of  n  co'.irse  designed  to  trftiit  citizfiis  for  a  spccLBc  crisis.    Siigg^tive  Iwth  as  to  seopo 
and  method  of  citizenship  training. 


22  EDUCATION   FOR   CITIZKKSHIP. 

Baldwin,  Simeon*.  The  Relations  of  Education  to  Citizenship.     Yale  University 
Press,  1912. 

Six  thoughtful  and  suggestive  essays  ou  subjects  iudicalcd  in  their  general  title. 

Barnard,  J.  L.  The  Teaching  of  Oomnnniity  Ci\ics.     (With  F.  W.  Carrier,  Arthur 
W.  Dunn,  and  Clarence  D.  Kingsley.)     Government  Printing  Ofhre,  1915. 

Quito  a  practical  study  of  various  comnuniily  problems  and  of  useful  ^vays  of  teaching  and  training 
children  to  help  solve  .them.  ■ 

Bennion,  Milton.  Citizenship:  An  Introduction  to  Social  Ethic.-^.     World  Book  Co., 
1917. 

An  elementary  text  in  social  ethics  wliirli  is  valuable  forits  clearstatenicnt  of  the  broader  aspect 
of  the  responsibilities  of  citizenship. 

Branom,  Mendel  E.  The  Project  Method  in  Education.    .Badger,  1915. 

Useful  as  a  description  and  explanation  of  the  method  of  leaching  by  i>rojects. 

Cabot,  Ella  Lyman.  A  Course  in  Citizenship  and  Patriotism.      (With  Andrews  and 
others.)    Iloughton,  1918. 

Deals  with  the  problems  of  home,  ueighborliood,  v.ith  civic  and  national  problems,  tlnough  care- 
fully selected  literary  materials. 

Carrier,  F.  W.  See  Barnard.  J.  I;. 

Dewey,  John.  Democracy  and  Education,  191G. 

■  How  We  Think.     Heath,  1910. 

• .  Interest  and  Effort  in  Education.     Houghton,  1913. 

• .  Schools  of  To-morrow.     (With  Evelyn  Dewey.)     Dutton,  1905. 

— — — -.  The  School  and  Society.     Univer.'^ity  of  Chicago  Prcis,  1909. 

Kxpositiou  of  the  fundament  al  function  and  nature  of  the  learning  process,  and  an  inf elligcut  i  lea 
for  a  better  quality  of  teaching,  one  which  absorbs  the  interest  of  the  learner  bj-  giving  purpose  aua 
spirit  to  learning. 

• .  Reconstruction  in  Philosophy.     Holt,  1920. 

Very  valuible  as  an  iatcrpretatiori  of  the  reconstruction  of  ideas  and  ways  of  thought  now  taking 
plaDC  in  philosophy.    Lays  espsr^ial  emphasis  o!i  growth  as  the  only  educatronal  as  well  as  moral  end. 

Dunn,  Arthur  W.     See  Barnard,  J.  L. 

■ .  Community  Civics.     Heath,  1920. 

■ .  The  Community  and  the  Citizen.     Heath,  1911. 

.  Citizenship  in  School  and  Out.     (With  Han-is,  H.  M.)    Heath,  1919. 

Valuable  for  a  study  of  .specirtc  community  problems  and  of  opportunities  for  "teamwork''  in  pro- 
moting community  well-being. 

Earheart,  Lida  B.  Teaching  Children  to  Study.     Houghton,  1909. 

• .  Types  of  Teaching.     Houghton.  1915. 

Contains  expoiitiou  of  types  or  methods  of  teaching  and  illu.^trations  through  type  studios  or 
"projects." 

Field,  Jessie.  Community  Civics.     (With  Scott  Xearing.)     MacMillan,  191G. 

Useful  as  a  guide  for  an  elementary  course  in  training  for  intelligent  participation  in  the  affairs  of 
the  community. 

Graham,  Edward  K.  Education  and  Citizenship.     Putnam's,  1919. 

A  volume  of  brilliant  essays  dealing  with  the  general  relationships  of  education  to  citizenship.  Sug- 
gestive and  stimulating. 

Harris,  H.  M,     See  Dunn.  Arthur  W. 

James,  William.    Talks  to  Teachers.     Holt,  1899. 

Valuable  in  this  conucction  for  its  light  upon  natural  approach  to  everyday  jvolilems  in  scliool 
and  out. 

Jenks,  Jeremiah.  Citizenship  and  -the  Schools.    Holt,  1900. 

A  volume  of  nine  essays  dealing  primarily  with  the  relation  of  educational  work  1  o  social  and  political 
life.  Several  of  the  essays  have  a  very  direct  bearing  upon  such  a  plan  of  training  as  that  suggested^ 
in  the  foregoing  inquiry. 

Mann,  Charles  R.  The  American  Spirit  in  Education.     Ihilletin,   1919,   Xo.  30, 
Department  of  the  Interior,  Bureau  of  Education. 


EDUCATIOX   FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  23 

Manx.  Charles  R.  Education  in  the  United  {^tatc?  Annv.     Educational  Review, 
June,  1920. 

.  A  Study  of  P^ngineoring:  Education.    The  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Teaching.     Xew  York.  1919. 

The  Committee  on  Education  and  Special  Training:  A  Review  of  its  Work 


During  1918.    The  Ad\isory  Board.     War  Department.  1919. 

Inquiries  into  the  character,  inirpose,  and  methods  fit  the  .\merican  c<Incational  system.  Very 
suggestive  au<l  highly  vahiablc  in  relation  to  the  social  bearing  of  a  citizenship  course  a.s  well  as  in 
relation  to  method.^. 

Nearin(;,  Scott.  See  FieUl,  Jessie. 

RoBixsox.  James  H.  The  New  History.     MacMillan.  1912. 

Very  valuable  for  its  bearing  upon  the  metlu»d~  and  objectives  of  historical  study,  and  thus  related 
closely  to  the  question  of  training  for  citizenship.  * 

Shaler,  Nathaniel.  The  Citizen.    A  Study  of  the  Individual  and  the  Govern- 
ment.   A.  S.  Barnes.  Um. 

A  brilliant  and  stimulating  series  of  discussions  of  the  relations  of  the  individual  to  Oovcmment, 
to  party,  to  law,  to  commimity,  to  fellou-  citizens,  to  environment  generally.  One  of  the  most  useful 
and  stimulating  of  all  the  books  on  the  subject. 

Shaw,  Albert.  The  Outlook  of  the  Average  Man.    MacMillan.  1907. 

Essays  dealing  with  the  relation  of  the  average  man  to  economic^  industrial,  soc-ial.  and  }>oIitical 
conditions.    Suggestive. 

Stockton,  Jame.s  E.  Project  Work  in  Education.     Houghton,  1920. 

A  brief  and  clear  e.xiMKit ion  of  the  project  method  ami  its  cducationalsignificance.    Very  suggestive. 

Inited  States  Army.  Educational  Manual  No.  5.  Second  Course  in  General  Edu- 
cation.    E.  i:  R.  Special  School.  < "amp  Grant. 

This  contains  the  subject-matter  with  hints  to  teachers  for  the  first  term  of  the  course  for  literate 
soldiers.    The  second  and  third  year's  work  are  now  in  preparation. 

Wilson.  H.  B.  and  G.  M.  Tlie  Motivation  of  School  Work.     Hougliton,  1910. 

Practical  as  a  help  to  teachers  in  discovering  the  motives  of  projects  and  of  prolilems,  and  iu  direct- 
ing study  of  school  and  other  activities. 

The  following  group  of  magazine  articles  tue  typical  of  the  more 
valuable  recent  contributions  to  the  discussion  of  citizenship  training 
and  the  project  method.  In  regard  to  method,  the^'  cover  the 
ground  from  the  pioneer  work  of  Kilpatrick  to  the  most  recent 
di.scussion  of  Branom. 
Balliet.  Thomas  M.  The  Now   Democracy  and   ICducation.     Hi;<torical  Outlook, 

April.  19-20. 
Clark.  I-.  A.  A  Good  Way  to  Teach  History.     Scliool  Review.  17:'2b'). 
Ellwooi).  Charles.  Reconstruction  of  Education  upon  a  Social  I»asi?.     Educational 

Review.  February.  1919. 
Hatch.  R.'W.  The  Project-Pro!)lem  a.s  a  Method!  ^>r  Teaching  History.     Historical 

Outlook.  June.  1920. 
KiLP.\THiCK,  W.  II.  The  Prolilem-Project  .\ttack  in  Organization.  Subject-matter,  and 

Teaching.     N.     E.     A.     Procs..  1918. 

— .  The  Project  Method.     Teachers"  College  Record.  Septfinber.  191S. 

Randall,  J.  \.  Project  Teaching.     N.  E.  A.  Proc^..  191-'^. 

Snedden.  David.  The  ''Case  Group"  Approach  to  Proi;rams  of  Civic  Education. 

Historical  Outlook.  May.  1920. 

.  The  Project  as  a  Teaching  I'nit.     School  and  Society.'  September  16.  191G. 

Stafle.s,  Laurence  C.  Effective  Citizenship  in  a  Democracy.     Historical  Outlook, 

March,  1920. 
WooDHULL.  John  F.  The  Project  Methotl  in  the  Teaching  of  Science.     School  and 

Society,  July  13,  1918. 


■24  EDUCATION   FOE   CITIZKNSHIP. 

V.  APPENDIX. 

The  follow  iiig  analysis  of  the  capacities,  intelligence,  and  attitudes 
which  a  productive  citizen  should  have  is  presented  as  an  example 
of  the  kind  of  deiinition  of  results  which  each  teacher  should  make 
as  a  guide  in  framing  a  course  in  accordance  with  the  recommenda- 
tions in  the  foregoing  report.  The  suggestion  is  not  made  with  any 
claim  to  finality.  Doubtless  those  giving  the  subject  consideration 
will  add  to  the  content  of  information  and  knowledge  and  to  the 
specified  civic  attitudes  and  abilities  much  that  occurs  to  them  as 
of  equal  importance  with  those  here  mentioned. 

].    CIVIC    CAPACITIES. 

The  -trained  and  creative  citizen  must  possess  as  a  minimum  the 
following  capacities: 

To  read,  write,  and  cipher;  to  express  himself  in  speaking  as  well 
as  in  writing;  to  handle  proficiently  and  economically  that  body  of 
processes  commonly  called  arithmetic;  in  order  that  he  may  be  able 
to  cooperate  in  the  movements  of  the  times,  and,  to  utilize  and  enjoy 
the  resources  which  social  inheritance  has  placed  at  his  disposal. 

To  minister  to  self-preservation  and  win  adequate  support  and 
fullest  development,  by  maintaining  himself  in  the  best  possible 
health,  by  earning  his  own  livelihood,  by  discovering  the  vocation 
for  which  he  is  best  adapted,  and  by  performing  effectively  the 
duties  required  of  it. 

To  care  for  a  family,  support  it  adequately,  comfortably,  and 
wholesomely,  provide  for  its  health,  and  assume  responsibility  for 
its  proper  protection,  education,  and  training. 

To  participate  in  the  life  of  the  community  in  an  intelligent,  pro- 
ductive, and  vital  way. 

To  defend  his  country. — The  obligation  for  military  service  in  an 
emergency  is  one  of  the  fundamental  duties  of  citizenship.  The 
war  has  demonstrated  how  disastrous  it  is  to  have  to  require  this 
service  of  men  who  have  had  no  military  training  or  experience. 

To  make  intelligent  use  of  leisure. — Properly  employed,  leisure 
becomes  the  fountain  head  of  individual  and  social  growth  and 
human  betterment,  contributes  to  the  hcalthfulness  of  body  and 
mind,  and  develops  nobler  tastes  and  ideals;  improperly  used,  it 
promotes  idleness  and  vice,  degeneracy  and  crime. 

To  recognize  cultural  and  esthetic  interests  as  valuable  adjuncts  of 
social  efficiency;  to  enjoy  and  appreciate  the  interests  and  products 
of  civilization  which  help  him  perform  not  only  his  special  work,  but 
the  general  work  of  citizen,  parent,  friend,  human  being,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  whole  business  of  living. 

To  tliink  straight  by  subordinating  details  to  a  unity  of  purpose, 
and  by  weighing  and  evaluating  impartially  and  accurately  facts 


EDUCATION  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  25 

and  evidence  so  as  to  reach  sane  conclusions  regardless  of  outcome. 
This  means  intellectual  thoroughness,  or  "seeing  the  thing  through." 

2.    CIVIC    INTELLIGENCE. 

Cww  intelligence  inchules  that  information  and  knowledge  which 
must  be  acfjuircd  in  the  process  of  developing  civic  capacities  in 
order  to  make  them  effective  in  conduct.  What  should  be  the  mini- 
mum of  this  information  is,  of  course,  a  question  concerning  which 
there  will  bo  a  vaiiety  of  o])inion.  Additions,  however,  can  readily 
be  made,  but  all  will  doubtless  agi-ee  that  tiie  productive  citizen 
should  have  clear  conceptions  and  reliable  infoimation  concerning  at 
least  the  following  factoi*s  in  his  economic,  social,  political,  and  intel- 
lectual environment: 

Production,  distrihutio^n,  and  consnmption. — The  life  of  the  modern 
world  is  primarih'  industrial.  The  daily  life  of  the  citizen,  his 
welfare  and  that  of  soceity  at  large,  the  activities  of  government, 
are  all  intimately  and  fundamentally  concerned  with  industrial 
questions.  '^Hie  general  conditions  affecting  the  struggle  for  existence 
should  be  comprehended  by  every  citizen,  especially  those  which 
touch  most  intimately  his  own  interests  and  environment. 

Tmnsportation  and  comrnnnciation,  which  are  vital  factors  in 
modern  civilization,  affect iiig  ])rofoundly  the  economic  and  intellect- 
ual life  of  every  individual.  The  equipped  citizeji  must  know  thte 
essential  facts  concerning  tliem  an<l  their  function  in  the  life  and 
progress  of  tlie  world. 

CTtarities  and  correct i on fi.  the  cuuses  of  dependency,  the  means 
by  which  the  community  seeks  to  make  the  people  self-supporting 
and  able  to  provide  for  those  who  are  dependent  through  no  fault 
of  their  own,  and  the  agencies  for  the  relief  of  dependents,  such  as 
institutions  for  orphans,  hospitals,  homes  for  the  aged  and  the 
crippled,  and  other  social-service  agencies.  Likewise,  he  should 
have  an  undei*standing  of  the  proper  attitude  toward  criminals  and 
delinrpients,  and  the  methods  by  which  society  seeks  to  prevent 
crime  and  to  correct  those  who  have  fallen  into  error. 

Taxation,  which  profoundly  affects  every  person.  Directly,  *it 
touches  every  taxpayer;  indirccth*,  it  touches  all  industry  and  trade. 
It  has  a  vital  relation  to  the  cost  and  standards  of  living.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  far-reaching  manifestations  of  human  cooperation. 

TJie  relations  ofhhor  and  capital  profoundly  affect  the  life  of  every 
individual.  They  determine,  in  many  respects,  the  welfare  of 
society.  They  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  practical  policies  and 
operations  of  government.  They  include  such  questions  as  hours 
and  wages  of  labor,  conditions  of  employment,  strikes  and  industrial 
disputes,  and,  in  their  mass,  form  a  largo  part  of  the  problems  of 
industry  and  industrial  justice. 


26  EDUCATION  FOE   CITIZENSHIP. 

Money  and  credit  are  agen-cies  of  cooperation.  They  are  funda- 
mental necessities  of  all  industry.  Their  origin,  their  function,  the 
distinctions  between  them,  and  sound  methods  of  handling  them 
should  bo  clearly  grasi:>ed  by  ereryone. 

Geographic  influence  in  history,  including  knowledge  of  the  ways 
in  which  man's  struggle  to  master  his  environment  has  affected  his 
development,  his  interests,  his  capacities,  his  opinions,  and  convic- 
tions—in short,  his  history — is.  of  tremendous  value  in  the  formation 
of  proper  conceptions  and  attitudes. 

7/ea?/7(,  including  the  principal  rules  and  laws  that  promote,  the 
need  and  desire  for,  and  the  necessity  for  promoting,  personal  and 
public  health;  the  dependence  of  individuals  and  communities  upon 
one  another  for  health;  the  means  which  communities  adopt  to  pro- 
mote and  regulate  health;  and  the  responsibility  of  the  citizen  for  his 
own  health  and  that  of  the  community. 

"  The  family  is  the  school  of  all  the  virtues;"'  the  Nation  will  bo 
secure  so  long  as  it  possesses  a  good  home  life.  Every  citizen  should 
have  a  sympathetic  knowledge  of  the  history  and  development  of 
the  family  as  the  fundamental  unit  of  society.  In  human  evolution 
all  successful  individual  relations  find  complete  fruition  in  the  family 
relation.  On  this,  modern  civilization  rests.  In  the  family  are. 
developed  the  habits  of  virtuous  action  and  the  rules  which  have, 
been  established  for  the  welfare  of  all.  The  surest  way  to  secure 
good  government  in  the  community  is  through  good  goAcrnment  in 
the  home  and  family. 

Community  problems  deal  with  the  various  relationships  and  intei- 
dependencies  that  exist  between  the  membei*s  of  the  community 
together  with  the  individual's  obligation  to  take  part  in  and  con- 
tribute to  the  common  welfare.  The  best  of  the  citizen's  life  comes 
from  intelligent  participation  in  the  life  of  the  community.  Good 
citizenship  means  the  active  performance  of  all  duties  as  a  member 
of  a  community. 

Education,  the  purpose  and  place  of  education,  its  various  important 
relations  to  democracy  should  be  understood.  Every  citizen  should 
realize  that  it  is  both  a  privilege  and  a  duty  which  he  owes  to  the 
community  to  equip  himself  as  fully  as  possible  to  render  the  best 
service  possible.  He  should  recognize  his  responsibility  for  helping 
to  provide  for  adequate  and  safe  educational  opportunities  and 
facilities  for  all  members  of  the  community  in  which  he  lives. 

The  conditions  of  living,  whether  in  urban  or  rural  communities, 
constitute  one  of  the  most  important  factoids  affecting  social  well- 
being.  The  mixed  character  of  the  crowded  population  and  then- 
conflicting  interests;  the  distribution  of  the  population  involving 
transportation  and  tenement  districts;  municipal  ownership  and 
government;  sanitation,  the  water  suppl}'  and  sewerage;  police  and 


EDUCATIOS-  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  27 

firo  protection :  street  cleaning;  smoke  abatement;  schools,  courts, 
chanties,  and  public  recreation  are  some  of  the  problems  of  city  life 
concerning  which  every  citizen  should  have  an  intelligent  under- 
standing. 

Similarly,  he  should  understand  that  whatever  affects  the  rural 
sections  of  the  country  is  of  grave  national  concern,  not  only  because 
of  the  material  dependence  of  society  upon  farms  for  food,  but  because 
of  the  social,  educational,  and  moral  influence  of  that  half  of  the  popu- 
lation which  still  lives  in  the  country  and  follows  farming  as  an 
occupation.  He  needs  to  have  a  sound  knowledge  of  the  increas- 
ingly imj)ortant  problems  of  country  life,  such  as  the  constant  drift 
of  country  people  citywards,  the  education  of  country  children, 
roatls  and  other  means  of  communication,  the  labor  situation  in  rural 
regions,  methods  of  fanning,  and  similar  interrelated  problems. 

Liberty,  including  political  liberty,  libert\'  of  conscience,  of  speech, 
of  the  press,  has  been  won  in  civic  struggles.  Knowledge  concerning 
this  long  human  struggle  for  the  achievement  of  liberty,  and  an 
appreciation  of  the  changing  conception  of  the  term,  will  best  stimu- 
late and  equip  the  individual  for  the  continuance  of  this  ceaseless 
struggle  in  his  own  time. 

Immigration  and  racial  lirohhrnsi,  which  affect  life  in  the  Unitc<l 
States  more  than  in  any  other  country.  They  touch  intimately 
such  matters  as  lal)or,  wages,  cost  and  standards  of  living,  produc- 
tion, distribution,  political  ideals  and  practice,  and  a  host  of  other 
questions  of  not  less  importance.  The  matter  of  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  in  respect  to  it,  for  example,  is  a  ])olitical,  social,  and 
industrial  question  of  the  utmost  importance.  Because  of  its  tre- 
mendous alien  population,  the  United  States  is  confronted  with  many 
))roblems  growing  out  of  the  customs,  ideals,  and  aspirations  of 
different  racial  groups.  The  citizen  must  have  a  basis  of  informa- 
tional knowledge  upon  which  to  posit  his  opinions  on  the  subject. 

The  changing  stotufi  of  v:om<n  should  be  grasped,  including  tho 
economic,  socir.l,  iind  political  significance  of  her  new  place  in  tho 
occupations,  the  rights  and  privileges  which  have  been  ^^on  for  her, 
and  the  possibilities  of  her  influence  on  social  questions,  such  as  per- 
sonal and  public  mor.-JitN.  cducjition,  the  family,  child  labor,  sani- 
tation, and  hejvlth.  [mw  jind  government.* 

Religimi,  its  universftlity,  its  significance,  and  its  preponderant  in- 
fluence in  shjiping  civilization;  that  it  was  (me  of  the  chief  elements 
in  the  foundation  of  our  present  superstructure,  that  it  has  always 
played  a  large  j)Rrt  in  educational,  social,  and  political  relationships, 
and  that  the  religious  element  in  human  culture  is  essential;  all  this 
must  be  presented  to  every  citizen  whose  training  and  education  aim 
at  completeness  and  proportion. 


28  EDUCATIOX   FOE   CITIZENSHIP. 

The  worVvngs  of  Government — local,  State,  and  National — should 
bo  familiar  subjects  to  every  properly  equipped  citizen.  He  should 
know  that  government  is  simply  a  social  means,  and  that  it  should 
never  be  an  end  in  itself.  Particularly,  sliould  he  be  famihar  with  the 
duties  of  the  citizen  in  relation  to  Government  and  with  the  prob- 
lems which  must  be  faced  and  settled  by  the  Government.  Without 
such  knowledge  he  can  not  express  in  action  the  responsibility  which 
lie  feels  and  the  convictions  which  he  holds. 

International  iwoblems  are  to-day  of  first  importance  because  the 
whole  world  is  now  in  close  communication,  and  the  interests  of 
nations  are  inseparably  interwoven.  Never  again  can  America, 
whether  it  will  or  not,  be  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  world. 

Literature  and  jMlosophy,  which  constitute  the  heritage  of  the 
world  to-day,  will  be  found  the  finest  of  materials  for  developing  the 
attitudes  aiid  dispositions  essejitial  to  good  citizenship.  In  them  is 
to  be  found  the  reflection  of  social,  economic,  political,  and  intellectual 
movements,  past  and  present.  The  proper  understanding  of  these 
will  assist  men  in  working  out  the  meaning  of  their  lives  and  the 
nature  of  the  world  in  which  they  live.  It  will  tend  vastly  to  in- 
crease the  fund  of  informational  knowledge,  humanize  the  approach 
to  every  subject,  give  increased  facility  to  self-expression,  widen  the 
horizon,  ripen  and  mellow  thought,  and  bring  the  resources  of  human- 
ism to  the  national  service. 

History  of  environment  involves  in  time  an  iniderstanding  of  that 
historical  background  without  which  complete  understanding  is  im- 
possible. The  well-informed  citizen  requires  some  knowledge  of  the 
past  as  a  guide  to  opinion  and  conviction  concerning  contemporary 
affairs  and  problems.  He  needs  not  only  knowledge  of  the  origins 
of  our  own  peculiar  system,  but  also  of  the  essentials  of  the  history 
of  the  entire  civilization  existent  in  the  world  to-day.  Such  knowl- 
edge will  serve  also  to  develop  many  of  the  attitudes  and  disposi- 
tions essential  to  good  citizenship,  will  tend  to  broaden  the  mental 
horizon,  and  furnish  problem  material  of  the  most  valuable  sort. 

■  3.    CIVIC   ATTITUDES. 

The  productive  citizen  must  finally  have  developed  as  a  result  of 
his  inheritance  and  his  training  certain  civic  attitudes—those  habits 
of  mind  and  heart  which  express  themselves  in  a  disposition  to  serve 
the  community  and  the  Nation  for  the  best  interests  of  all.  They 
are  conceived,  not  as  ends  in  themselves,  but  rather  as  habits  of  mind 
which  regularly  influence  and  guide  conduct  in  respect  to  concrete 
situations.  They  are  instinctive  in  all  sane  men  and  need  only  health- 
ful environment  for  their  full  development.  The  good  citizen  lias 
the  disposition; 


EDUCATION  FOR  riTTZENSHIP.  29 

To  ad  loyally. — The  habit  of  loyal  action  touches  and  controls 
one's  attitude  in  respect  to  himself,  his  convictions,  and  his  tradi- 
tions, and  his  relation  to  his  home,  family,  associates,  occupation, 
and  country.     It  should  enter  largely  into  every  social  relation. 

To  cooperate. — The  spirit  of  cooperation  includes  good  will,  readi- 
ness to  give  and  take  in  the  activities  of  life,  unselfishness,  generosity, 
obedience  to  law,  desire  for  intelligent  service,  respect  for  both  the 
majority  and  the  minority.  It  is  essential  because  it  is  that  social 
disposition  wiiich  enables  the  citizen  to  develop  powerful  team-play 
with  his  fellows  with  a  minimum  of  friction.  As  the  sound  basis  of 
every  socijd  relationship,  it  involves  also  adaptability,  tolerance,  and 
intelligent  sympathy,  in  that  it  is  necessary  for  relating  and  adapting 
one  to  the  necessities  of  one's  environment. 

To  ad  honestly. — Honest  action  is  the  sine  qua  non  of  good  citizen- 
ship. Upon  it  is  based  the  whole  fabric  of  the  social  relations  of 
mankind — the  prosperity  and  security  of  industry  and  commerce, 
the  comfort  and  stability  of  all  pei'sonal  relations,  the  effectiveness 
and  responsibility  of  government,  and  the  ])eaceful  and  friendly 
relations  of  the  nations  of  the  world. 

To  ad  justly. — The  disposition  to  act  justly  enables  its  possessor  to 
form  sane  attitudes  as  to  principles,  persons,  and  situations;  and  to 
act  upon  the  basis  of  such  attitudes. 

To  irorl-  ijidustnously.-Industvy,  including  not  only  readiness  or 
willingness,  but  an  active  desire  to  participate  jiroductively  in  indus- 
trial, social,  political,  and  intellectual  affaii-s.  is  the  basis  of  economic 
independence  and. productive  functicining  in  society. 

To  lii'e  thiftihj. — Thrifty  living  sliould  be  the  twin  of  industrious 
jiving.  It  includes  sj)en(ling  wisely  as  well  as  saving  wiseh'.  It  is 
essential  because  it  assists  in  securing  economic  independence, 
enhances  creative  power,  and  cultivates  the  habit  of  looking  forward. 

To  ad  tolfra ntly .-  Tohviinco  or  open-mindtMlncss  is  essential  to  full 
social  cooperation.  It  does  not  mean  being  indifferent,  to  wrong  or 
injustice,  but  it  does  mean  the  ability  to  live  and  let  live,  to  respect 
the  sincere  opinions  and  convictions  of  others. 

7o  live  reverently. — Eeverence  includes  respect  in  its  various  forms, 
such  as  respect  for  women,  for  children,  for  the  aged,  for  property, 
for  reliirion,  for  law,  for  sanctioned  institutions,  forsound  traditions — 
the  great  heritage  of  the  past. 

To  act  responsibly. — The  feeling  of  resj)onsil)ility  with  moral  con- 
viction is  one  of  the  mainsprings  which  fm-nish  the  motive  power  of 
the  best  civic  action. 

To  ad  independently. — Independent  action  develops  a  consciou.sness 
of  power  in  one's  self,  and  furnishes  a  resourcefulness  which  enables 
the  citizen  to  sustain  himself  in  thought  and  action,  which  makes  for 


30  EDUCATION  FOR   CITIZENSHIP. 

sound  motives,  and  which  dorelops  wliolesomo  pride  in  the  achieve- 
ments and  good  character  of  home,  occupation,  community,  and 
country. 

To  act  icith  self-control. — S?lf-ccn trolled  action  serves  as  a  balance 
wheel  to  jmmitive  instinct  or  irrational  imj>ulse.  It  is  a  funda- 
mental basis  of  all  good  social  conduct. 

To  act  kindly. — To  apply  to  all  the  concrete  situations  t>f  life  kindness 
and  inteUigent  svmpathy,  understandiua:  of  the  problems:  difficulties, 
and  necessities  of  others,  neighborliness.  is  essential  in  making  one 
socially  minded,  and.  hence,  cooperative.  This  habit  tempers  and 
controls  the  natural  selfishness  of  the  individual. 

To  live  creatively. — Creative  thought  and  action  constitute  prime 
sources  of  power  which  drive  men  to  contribute  in  a  positive,  effective 
way  to  the  welfare  of  society.  The  creative  mstinct  is.  perha})s.  the 
most  imjjelling  of  all  human  incentives. 

To  lire  coumgeously. — Courageous  conduct,  both  physical  and 
moral;  is  essential  in  all  the  relations  and  situations  of  life. 

o 


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